Ocio - Economic Factors That Influence Child Labour in Nigeria

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INTRODUCTION
Child labour has been a serious problem and a challenge for many countries around the world, especially, the developing countries.Globally, it has been a challenge and long-term goal in many countries to abolish all forms of child labour.In developing countries, it is considered as a serious issue these days.Child labour refers to children who miss their childhood and are not able to have the basic amenities which a child should have.Recently the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2013) estimated there are around 215 million children between the ages five to fourteen who works worldwide.They are often mistreated and work for prolonged hours, in very bad conditions.This can affect their health physically, mentally and emotionally.These children do not have the basic rights like access to school or health care (Osment, 2014).
According to ILO (2013) the largest numbers of child labourers are working in hazardous work and the total number of child workers is increasing, even though it is forbidden by law.These children are vulnerable to diseases and they struggle with long-term physical and psychological pain.The main cause that induces children to work is poverty.These children work for their survival and their families (Mapaure, 2009).Although, not all the work that children do is harmful or brutal.Some work may provide successful learning opportunities, such as babysitting or newspaper delivery jobs, but not if the work exposes them to psychological stress, like human trafficking, prostitution and pornographic activities (ILO, 2010).
International organizations have made great efforts to eliminate child labour across the world.Many countries have adopted legislation to prohibit child labour; nonetheless, child labour is widespread throughout the world.It is not easy task for low income countries to achieve banning child labour.In most African countries, a large proportion of households still live below the poverty line of less than $5 US Dollars per day, due to factors such as weak economic base, galloping inflationary measures, high rate of unemployment, the inadequate incomes of parents as well as ineffective machinery to enforce child welfare policies (Togunde & Carter, 2008).The result is that it has affected children in the rural areas find it difficult to survive as a result of economic status of their parent.These adverse socio-economic situation as highlighted above which are also compounded by the challenging political and cultural crises in many countries, as evidenced by civil wars, genocide, famine, drought, HIV/AIDS epidemic, and structural adjustment programs makes life in the rural areas unbearable for the children (Alam, Mondal & Rahman, 2008;and Crosson, 2008).Consequently, African children who are always at the receiving end are often placed in the margins of public arena through their joining both the wage and non-wage markets, some of these activities are sometimes hazardous to their health and education (Crosson, 2008;Ekpenyong & Sibiri, 2011).
The effects of child labour are visible on different levels in the society.On the child, the mental health of the child is negatively affected.Indeed, children engaged in hazardous industries have been observed to suffer from oral abuse from their employers, consistent fear of job termination, low self-esteem, and a loss of imagination and future direction in life (Ayoade, 2010;Okafor, 2010;and Ugochukwu, Okeke, Onubogu & Edokwe, 2012).Also, physical stress due to the age and maturation of the child is affected leading to low concentration at school and breakdown of health of the child.Physical consequences that range from malnourishment, diseases, musculoskeletal disorders from heavy labour, physical and sexual abuse, to injuries, exposure to toxic agents, and prolonged working in cramped and hazardous conditions have been well documented (Ugochukwu, et al., 2012;and Onyemelukwe, 2014).These physical effects of the industrial sector have been detrimental to the well-being of the child worker.
At the household level, children's economic production has become an important aspect of economic survival strategies.Many children spend several hours working outside the home in order to bring additional income to the household.A significant proportion are involved in petty trading and services (as street hawkers, domestic servants, and in apprenticeship positions) or even working as street beggars in urban areas (Appel, 2009;and Amuda, 2010).Therefore, their involvement in these activities poses serious threats to the continued survival of the society; distort government policy with respect to education of the youth due to high dropout rate.It distorts acquisition of vocational skills and relevant education thereby destroying the economic sector (Amuda, 2010).Socially, children in industries have been found to experience negative consequences to their educational development and performance.The prevalence of illiteracy, low school attendance, and low enrollment has been attributed to children's economic participation (Okafor & Amayo, 2006;and Onyemelukwe, 2014).Okoye and Tanyi (2009) carried out a study on the perception of child labour in South Eastern Nigeria: a study of Onitsha metropolis, investigating the perceptions of Nigerians on child labour.A sample of 360 respondents was used for study.The findings indicate that majority (70.6%) of the respondents perceive such chores like baby-sitting, fetching water, splitting firewood, sweeping, farming and cooking as child labour.Also, the sex of the respondents was found to be the most important predictor of perception of chores that constitute child labour.From the study, it can be said that the forms of child labour reported by the authors are simply child work and not obviously child labour, as has been highlighted earlier.

Forms of child labour
Similarly, Asamu (2015) in a study examined child labour and its social implications on children in selected cities (being Ibadan, Enugu, and Kaduna) in Nigeria.A sample of 826 child labourers was selected as respondents for the study.Findings from the study revealed that, child labour activities fall into different categories namely: bus conducting, car washing, hawking, begging, weaving, tailoring, hairdressing and auto-repairing, among others.The study also showed that; most children who engage in child labour are largely from the lower economic stratum of the society, and the incidence of child labour was also significantly related to the rate of child's health status (r = 0.21> t0.05); school attendance (r = -0.62 > t0.05); academic performance (r =0.39 > t0.05) their delinquent behaviours (r =0.57> t0.05); contact with parent (r = 0.24 > t0.05) and child's exploitation by employers (r= 0.31 > t0.05).The study highlighted that children who engage in economic activities are found to be different with respect to their social development.
From the study, it can be deduced that the forms of child labour are far-reaching and wide-ranged.

Factors that influences child labour practices
Ekpenyong and Sibiri (2011) conducted a study on street trading and child labour in Yenagoa.The study showed that chronic urban poverty can compel parents to send children of school age to work to boost family income.Thus, for many hours each day, children of poor parents are engaged in economic ventures including hawking, plaiting of hair, and being apprenticed to various trades.The study explained the basics of child labour, its causes, and its effect on its victims and society as a whole.A sample of 300 respondents was used for the study.The findings of the study established that street trading and child labour are a great menace to both the individual and society.From the study, it can be deduced that poverty is a leading cause of child labour, especially, among the majority of child labourers.
In another study carried out by Mfrekemfon and Ebirien (2015) on child labour: a public health problem in Nigeria.The study showed that child labour deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, and this is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.The study also showed that this has become a concern not only at the international level but national as well, because of the unhealthy circumstances and multiple health implications children are subjected to.The study indicated that child labour does not only deprive children of their education but also their physical and mental development.The study however, highlighted some of the causes of child labour to include poverty, unemployment, low income, corruption, demand for cheap labour and many others.From the study, it can be said that the causes of child labour on the child labourers are mostly economic, they are numerous and averse to the development of children.
However, taking a different stride, Shailong, Onuk, and Beshi (2011) conducted a study on the socio-economic factors affecting children hawkers in Lafia Local Government Area, Nasarawa State, Nigeria.This study examined why children are sent out to hawk on highways and other places.The sample size comprises 100 children under 15 years of age.Findings from the study, revealed that large family size were major reasons why parents send their children out for hawking.The study also showed that the income from the child hawker supports their mothers, mostly, in polygamous homes or a single-parent home.It can be inferred from the study, that child labour is more consistent in most polygamous and single parent homes.However, the study did not consider that some single parents and mothers in polygamous homes would rather do all the labour to promote the welfare of their children, without putting them through the risk associated with hawking.
In the same vein, Elegbeleye and Olasupo (2011) conducted a study on parental socio-economic status as correlate of child labour in Ile-Ife, Nigeria.The study investigated the relationship The outcome of the study showed that a significant relationship exists between parental socioeconomic status and child labour (parents of low income status showed significant high tendencies toward child labour practices than their high income counterparts).From the study, it can be said that the financial status of parents can influence their decision to engage their children in child labour practices.

Effects of Child Labour on Child Development
Early childhood is generally recognised as the most crucial life phase in terms of developmental malleability, for this is when maturation processes are accelerated and genotypic milestones emerge (Shonkoff, Richter, van der Gaag & Bhutta, 2012).The negative impact of deprivations in these critical periods can be very large.Importantly, the time sensitivities of early childhood are also socially structured by influences that include the institutions of education, as early cultural learning selects and reinforces specific cognitive and psychosocial competencies.Unequal participation in early-childhood and primary education further determines long-term trajectories, in the sense that institutions, teachers, and assessment systems all tend to promote some children over others, depending on their perceptions of children's characteristics and potential (Streuli, Vennam & Woodhead, 2011).Significantly, the child-environment influence operates in both directions, in that children do not simply absorb and react to external forces, but are instrumental in shaping their own environment by selecting and even creating those settings that are compatible with their individual characteristics (Woodhead, Ames, Vennam, Abebe, & Streuli, 2009).
In Nigeria, child labour practices, manifesting in the different forms, seems to be on the increase (Osiruemu, 2007).This is perhaps due to economic crisis, which started in the 1980s.The Nigerian economic crisis has made life worse for children of the poor whose parents have either lost their jobs or suffered a drastic decline of income (Onuoha, 2008).Problems such as malnutrition, high infant mortality, overcrowding, and others have been exacerbated as many Nigerian families were pushed below the poverty level even as a small class of people profited from the economic crisis.The economic crisis has also led to the abandonment of traditional and family responsibilities with serious effect on the underprivileged and the children.The outcome of this is clearly visible in the high increase of children who engage in child labour in both the formal and informal sectors (Onimajesin, 2011).
Child labour, according to UNICEF (2008), involves all works which are harmful to a child's health.These works include any work that violates children's fundamental human rights and any work that is dangerous or threatening.It also includes works that exhaust children's strength and damage their bodies.Whatever works that prevents children from going to school to gain basic skills and knowledge for their future development is included in the definition of child labour.With this, child labour is a challenge that every modern society has to contend with.Child labour has devastating effects on children, their families, communities in which they live, and generally on national development.The consequence(s) of child labour on child development is glaring obvious, and at times, irreversibly permanent.They include health hazard, physical abuse, fatigue, poor school performance, academic wastage, sexual abuse, accident, youth violence among others.Physical and health consequences of child labour include stunting, breathing problems owing to exposure to toxic substances, accident proneness, contamination of cuts and wounds.While cognitive problems include not attending schools, class retention and high dropout rate and achievement deficits, social and physiological consequences include isolation of working children from their families and peer-groups, stigmatization of work by peers, lowering of self-esteem of children and perception of relative deprivation (Rabiu, 2010;Onimajesin, 2011;and Asamu, 2015).Child labour exposes the child to a lot of hazards like sexual defilement, sexual assaults, neglects and threat of punishment for speaking out as exemplified above.The consequences of these acts usually result in an unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, psychological problems and a gradual withdrawal from a healthy relationship with the opposite gender.Nseabasi and Abiodun (2010) noted that street hawking exposes the male and female child to dangers posed by fraudsters and actual murderers because of their vulnerability at odd hawking hours.They are usually under personal jeopardy, harsh and hazardous conditions such as becoming an easy target to occult predators (ritual killers).Child labour does not only deprive children of their education but also their physical and mental development is taken away from their childhood.Children may not be aware of the short and long term risk involved in their work.Due to their long hours of work, child labourers are normally denied basic education, normal social interaction, personal development and emotional support from their family and they may face physical danger and even death (Onimajesin, 2011).Bassey, Baghebo and Otu (2012) argued that child labour has physical consequences on the child.These range from malnourishment, disease, musculoskeletal disorders from heavy labour, physical and sexual abuse.Mfrekemfon and Ebirien (2015) opined that child labour can result into injuries to the children and expose them to toxic agents in the process.Growth deficiency is common among child labourers.They tend to be shorter and lighter and grow with it into adult life.Long term health problems such as respiratory disease, asbestosis and different cancers are common in countries where they are forced to work with dangerous chemicals.HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases are common among children forced into prostitution.Exhaustion and malnutrition result from children performing heavy manual labour for long hours under unbearable conditions and not having enough money to feed.

Labour Rights for the Nigerian Child and the Way Forward
The law governing the rights of a child in labour issues in Nigeria is the Labour Act.Section 59 (b) of the Act provides that no young person shall be employed in any work which is injurious to his health or which is dangerous or immoral.The Act further provides that no child under the Age of 16 years shall be employed in circumstances in which it is not reasonably possible for him to return each day to the place of residence of his parents or guardians.The section forbids a child less than 16 years from working underground or on machines.It further forbids young persons from working for a longer period than four hours in one day.It places additional restrictions on the employment of a child or young person on a ship or any vessel and it prohibits absolutely, the night employment of young persons.From the above, one can see that the Labour Act does not prohibit child labour, rather it only places restrictions on where, when and how child's labour may be employed (Dada, 2013).
There should be public enlightenment at the grass roots or community levels on the present situation of child labour and its implication on the society.The family planning system should be made compulsory so as to prevent parents from having more children than they can care for.Poverty alleviation programmes should be improved upon to raise the standard of living of low income families; and upon meeting specific conditions, beneficiary households (poor households) must undertake certain activities or investments such as getting their children enrolled in school and allowing them to progress academically by staying in school without undue distraction.The government, local NGOs and civil societies should join hands and work together to ensure that children are protected from hazardous jobs that can impair their health status and their educational development (Asamu, 2015).

The Role of the Social Worker in Child Labour
The National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics (1999) states that, the primary duty of the social worker is to enhance human wellbeing and help meet the basic human needs, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty.They provide interventions and enhance human coping capabilities and competence to solve personal and social problems, so as to create a more caring, conducive, equitable and just society.Social workers provide clients with interventions such as assessment, counselling, task-centred work, advice, education/information giving, advocacy, among others (Ngwu, 2014).
According to Ngwu (2014), the social worker plays the following roles in relation to child labour/welfare services: Broker role: the social worker makes linkages between community and the clients, to highlight the dangers of child labour, seek alternative ways of supporting the parents' income and mitigating the practice of child labour.Advocacy role: the social worker advocates on behalf of the clients (the children) to get the desired services (quality, uninterrupted and non-distracted education and childhood) from the society and their families.Enabler role: the social worker helps the child and the family to find potentialities and resources within themselves to solve their problem (of poverty).To test hypothesis one, religious affiliation was cross-tabulated with involvement in child labour practices.The result revealed that among those involved in child labour practices, 93.2% were Christians while 6.8% were other religions.While among those not involved in child labour practices 93.1%, Christians while 6.9% were other religions.
The chi square test result shows that computed ᵡ² is 7.171 while the critical ᵡ² value is 3.841 and df=1.The test shows there is a statistically significant relationship (P <.007) between religious affiliation and the involvement in child labour practices.Accordingly, the substantive hypothesis which argued that Christians are more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than those from other religions is hereby accepted while the null hypothesis which state that Christians are not more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than those from other religions is hereby rejected.Hence, religion influences child labour.

Hypothesis two Substantive hypothesis:
Younger adults are more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than older adults Null hypothesis: Younger adults are not more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than older adults  To test hypothesis two, age of respondents was cross-tabulated with involvement practices.The result revealed that 50.5% of younger adults and 49.5% of older adults are involved in child labour practices.On the other hand, 60.1% of younger adults and 39.9% of older adults are not involved in child labour practices.The chi square test result shows that computed ᵡ² is 5.322 while the critical ᵡ² value is 3.841 and df=1.The test shows there is a statistically significant relationship (P <.021) between age of respondents and child labour practices.As a result of this, the substantive hypothesis which states that younger adults are more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than older adults is hereby upheld while the null hypothesis which states that younger adults are not more likely to involve their children in child labour practices than older adults is hereby rejected.Thus, age of respondents influences child labour practices.

Substantive hypothesis:
Working class persons are more likely to involve children in child labour practices than non-working-class persons Null hypothesis: Working class persons are not more likely to involve children in child labour practices than non-working-class persons

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Child labour remains a multifaceted social problem in many developing countries (Okoye & Tanyi, 2009).Child labour is one of the deadliest form of work a child is engaged in which tends to affect not just their present state but the future at large.Findings from this study in Table 4.8 revealed that majority (37.2%) of the respondents indicated house chores as a form of work children engage in.This means that children help their parents/guardian with house chores in the study area.This finding is in agreement with that of ILO (2010) according to him child work is a responsibility and a training to the child through assisting in house jobs that do not hinder their education and health.
The study also revealed that 53.5% of the respondents agreed that house chores is a form of training.This finding agrees with that of Mfrekemfon and Ebirien (2015).According to Mfrekemfon and Ebirien (2015) child work is considered to be a part of children's training to be responsible adults.However, the findings of Okoye and Tanyi (2009) has a differing view.
According to their study 70.6% of the respondents perceived house chores such as baby-sitting, fetching water, splitting firewood, sweeping, farming and cooking as a form of child labour and not child training.Although, participants in the IDIs reemphasized that children are to engage in house chores and other minor jobs for their development and proper training.morning sales, they know they will be caned and punished for late coming so they don't bother going to school.
Findings from Table 4.13 revealed that respondents' majority (62.8%) indicated that poverty is the reason parents engage their children in child labour.However, the findings is in agreement with that of Mapaure (2009) and Amuda.( 2010) According to Mapaure (2009) the major reason children work is poverty, they work for their survival and the survival of their families.Amuda.
(2010) also disclosed that a significant proportion of children are involved in petty trading and services in other to bring in additional income into the house.
Finding of the study in Table 4.17 also revealed that majority (87.2%) of the respondents mentioned that child labour practices have negative effect on the child.This finding is in agreement with the findings of Amuda ( 2010), Nseabasi and Abiodun (2010) and Bassey, Baghebo and Out (2012).According to Amuda (2010) the involvement of children in child labour activities poses serious threats to the continued survival of the society and distorts government policy with respect to the education of the child which is evident in the increased school drop-out rate.Nseabasi and Abiodun (2010) also noted that street hawking which is a form of child labour exposes the male and female child to dangers posed by fraudsters and murderers because of their vulnerability at odd hawking hours.Furthermore, Bassey, Baghebo and Out (2012) argued that child labour has physical consequences on the child which ranges from malnourishment, disease, musculoskeletal disorders from heavy labour, physical and sexual abuse.
Furthermore, in the literature several scholars found out that various socio-economic factors influence child labour practices.In the view of Osiruemu (2007) and Onuoha (2008) revealed that economic crisis evident in the country has made parents suffer loss of job which in turn has affected their income.This agrees with the hypothesis three of this study as displayed in Table 4.40.

CONCLUSION
The current study sought to examine the socio-economic factors that influence child labour in Nigeria.Since child labour poses threats to the growth and development of a child and the society at large there is need to stop all forms of child labour through cutting down the various socioeconomic factors that influences child labour practices.From this study, it can be concluded that since majority of the respondents indicated that child labour practices has negative effect on the child, there is the need to eradicate all forms of child labour through championing sensitization and enlightenment programmes.People who still choose to children in child labour after these sensitization and enlightenment programmes should be severely punished by the law to deter others from engaging in such acts.Also, providing jobs and skills acquisition programmes for those in the non-working class sector should also be established to enable people financially independent and carter for them and the entire family.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher endorses the following recommendations to aid government, institutions, NUC, UNICEF, community leaders, social workers and the public as a whole addressing the socio-economic factors that influence child labour in Nigeria.The recommendations are as follows;  Majority of the respondents revealed that poverty was the major reason people engage in child labour.Therefore, the federal, state and local government should ensure that the basic needs of the citizens are met.Also, programs of free education should be introduced all over the country to enable the poor go to school.In terms of alleviating poverty, small scale business should be provided to the people, loans should be given to people willing to start up a business to boost their resources. Majority of the respondents who are Christians indicated that they involve in child labour, there is need for church leaders including the Christian Association of Nigeria body, the Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria, to reconscientize and educate her members on the dangers involved in child labour.Also, during church services issues such as child rape/molestation, drug abuse, child trafficking/kidnapping and other effects of child labour should be discussed to discontinue people's involvement in child labour. There is need for policy makers especially in the education sector to review and modify the curriculum in order to include activities that makes school attractive for the child.Doing this encourages the child to always be in school and on time thereby issues of school dropout is restrained. Scholarships and other forms of monetary support should be given by philanthropist and wellmeaning community members to support people in training their children.Government and International bodies should also partner with schools to award and recognise children putting in efforts in their academic. Family size was considered as a factor influencing child labour.Therefore, family planning should be a must for people.Government and other health related bodies should make family planning kits reachable and affordable for everyone.
Social workers on their own part should create awareness by organizing enlightenment programmes for the general public specifically those in the non-working class sector, Christians, those with low education and the general public on the factors influencing child labour as well as its dangers on the child, the family and the society at large.Also, in curbing ://bjmas.org/index.php/bjmas/indexPublished by the European Centre for Research Training and Development UK ://bjmas.org/index.php/bjmas/indexPublished by the European Centre for Research Training and Development UK between parental socio-economic status and child labour practices in Ile-Ife, Nigeria.The study employed survey method to gather data from 200 parents which constituted the study population.

Table 4 .38:
Religious affiliation and involvement in child labour practices

Table 4 .40:
Occupation of respondents and involvement in child labour practicesTo test hypothesis three, occupation of respondents was cross-tabulated with child labour practices.The result revealed that 40.1% working class persons and 59.9% non-working class persons were involved in child labour practices.Additionally, 51.9% working class persons and 48.1% non-working class persons were not involved in child labour practices.The chi square test result shows that computed ᵡ² is 3.937 while the critical ᵡ² value is 3.841 and df=1.The test however shows there is a statistically significant relationship (P <.047) between occupation of respondents and child labour practices.As a result of this, the substantive hypothesis which states that working class persons are more likely to involve children in child labour practices than nonworking-class persons is hereby accepted while the null hypothesis which states that Working class persons are not more likely to involve children in child labour practices than non-workingclass persons is hereby rejected.

Table 4 .
Onimajesin (2011)also revealed that majority (52.4%) of the respondents see child labour as involving a child in any strenuous job.This finding agrees with UNICEF (2008) report.According to UNICEF (2008) Child labour is any work that is dangerous or threatening and strenuous.Moreover, Findings in Fig 4.1 showed that majority (64.1%) of the respondents indicated that child labour practices stops children from going to school.This finding is in agreement withOnimajesin (2011).Onimajesin (2011)revealed that due to the long hours of work by children they are denied basic education, normal social interactions among their peers and personal and emotional development.More so, an IDI with the women leader in Nomeh town supports this.She said that most of these children who you see hawking on the street rarely go back to school after their Website: https://bjmas.org/index.php/bjmas/indexPublished by the European Centre for Research Training and Development UK 13